Research Proposal on Wetlands Essay Example

Exploration Proposal on Wetlands Essay A wetland is the domain which is secured with water occasionally or all the all year. A wetland is a particular biological system, since certain creatures, bugs and plants can endure just in such grounds. By and large, there are a few kinds of water in wetlands (freshwater, saline and saltwater) and everything about decide the kind of plants and the types of the creatures which live there. There are various kinds of wetlands and the greater part of them have the picture of marshes, swamps, walks and fens. The biological system existing in the wetland is incredibly rich, in light of the fact that there are a huge number of plants, creepy crawlies, winged animals and creatures which exist together. The biggest wetlands are commonly situated in South America and an incredible number of the universal associations ensure their vegetation. The job of the wetlands is amazingly high. We will compose a custom paper test on Research Proposal on Wetlands explicitly for you for just $16.38 $13.9/page Request now We will compose a custom paper test on Research Proposal on Wetlands explicitly for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Recruit Writer We will compose a custom paper test on Research Proposal on Wetlands explicitly for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Recruit Writer These domains fill in as the huge stores of water which is utilized by creatures and plants as well as by individuals. Wetlands serve like the regular channels and they retain all the poisons from the water that is the reason the water on a superficial level is in every case clean. Additionally, wetlands fill in as a decent assistance for farming. Each wetland is situated in the bowl of a specific large waterway, so the dirt is very rich there and individuals utilize this quality for their motivations in agribusiness. Wetlands control the degree of water and keep from floods. They ingest a lot of precipitation and snowmelt water in their guests and don't let it flood tremendous domains. This conservational capacity of wetlands is valuable for the encompassing towns and towns since it keeps them from floods and furnishes them with water. The smallest unsafe effect of individuals on the life of a wetland is very risky for the entire biological system. There were situations when individuals dried the wetlands and accordingly all the fauna and greenery of the biological system was crushed and the individuals lost the single wellspring of water for the local purposes, drinking and agribusiness. An efficient wetlands research proposition ought to be founded on the profound information about the biological system of a wetland. An understudy ought to persuade the educator that the theme is worth research and furnish his with the realities which demonstrate that wetlands assume a significant job for the biological system, for the life of creatures and individuals and the financial aspects of the region. With the assistance of a decent free model examination proposition on wetlands an understudy becomes more acquainted with about the structure of the paper (he finds out about the writing audit and approach segments, forecasts and desires, and so on.) and the methods of its organizing. Besides, just a free example research proposition on wetlands will show an understudy the nuts and bolts of the persuading way regarding composition. At EssayLib.com composing administration you can arrange a custom examination proposition on Wetlands subjects. Your exploration paper proposition will be composed without any preparation. We recruit top of the line PhD and Master’s journalists just to furnish understudies with proficient exploration proposition help at reasonable rates. Every client will get a non-copied paper with opportune conveyance. Simply visit our site and dispatch in the request structure with all proposition subtleties: Make the most of our expert exploration proposition composing administration!

Database Normalization

Question: Examine about the Database Normalization Answer: Reliance Diagram The reliance graph is clarifying the reliance in the above table. The fields are reliant on one another in Trainer, Room and Class Session table. There is halfway and transitive reliance in the middle of the fields. 3NF Relations (Access Programmers n.d.) Social Schema Mentor (Trainer_ID, Trainer_Name) Essential Key - Trainer_ID Room (Room_No, Room_Name, School) Essential Key - Room_No Class_Session (Trainer_ID , Room_No, Class_Session, Trainer_Name , Room_Name, Class_Name, Class_Day, School) Essential Key - Trainer_ID, Room_No, Class_Session Trainer_ID references Trainer (Trainer_ID) Room_No references Room (Room_No) (Guru99 2016) ER Diagram References Guru99 2016, Learn Database Normalization with the assistance of a contextual analysis, Viewed on eleventh April 2017 https://www.guru99.com/database-normalization.html Access Programmers n.d., Normalizing the Table Design, Viewed on eleventh April 2017 https://www.access-programmers.com/normalizing-the-table-design.aspx

Focus is Key in College

Focus is Key in College When you get to college, youll find that focus is important to being successful in your studies and career pursuits. I believe that the more time and energy you put into something, the more you will get out of it. There are only 24 hours in a day, and you have the power to spend them wisely so that they add up to something great. Throughout college, I have learned that if you take a notoriously challenging class, it will require a lot more time and care. If there are internships and clubs that you are passionate about, make sure to make time to put forward quality effort towards them. Your time and energy will be rewarded down the line when you see the list of successful things that you have taken part in. Over time, you will find the right balance of how much time and energy that youll need to set aside for various tasks, courses, and extracurricular opportunities. Just remember that your use of time is key. Sometimes, youll need to make sacrifices. Its important to keep in mind that with great effort comes great reward. College is the perfect place to begin learning about time management. It is a skill that you will need for the rest of your life. Jacob Class of 2019 I’m an Advertising student within the College of Media. My hometown is a place called Fairmount, Illinois, which is about 30 minutes from campus. I began my Illinois journey in the Division of General Studies.

Protein and Polypeptide Structure

There are four levels of structure found in polypeptides and proteins. The primary structure of a polypeptide protein determines its secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures. Primary Structure The primary structure of polypeptides and proteins is the sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain with reference to the locations of any disulfide bonds. The primary structure may be thought of as a complete description of all of the covalent bonding in a polypeptide chain or protein. The most common way to denote a primary structure is to write the amino acid sequence using the standard three-letter abbreviations for the amino acids. For example  gly-gly-ser-ala  is the primary structure for a polypeptide composed of glycine, glycine, serine, and alanine, in that order, from the N-terminal amino acid (glycine) to the C-terminal amino acid (alanine). Secondary Structure Secondary structure is the ordered arrangement or conformation of amino acids in localized regions of a polypeptide or protein molecule. Hydrogen bonding plays an important role in stabilizing these folding patterns. The two main secondary structures are the alpha helix and the anti-parallel beta-pleated sheet. There are other periodic conformations  but the ÃŽ ±-helix and ÃŽ ²-pleated sheet are the most stable. A single polypeptide or protein may contain multiple secondary structures. An ÃŽ ±-helix is a right-handed or clockwise spiral in which each peptide bond is in the trans conformation and is planar. The amine group of each peptide bond runs generally upward and parallel to the axis of the helix; the carbonyl group points generally downward. The ÃŽ ²-pleated sheet consists of extended polypeptide chains with neighboring chains extending anti-parallel to each other. As with the ÃŽ ±-helix, each peptide bond is trans and planar. The amine and carbonyl groups of peptide bonds point toward each other and in the same plane, so hydrogen bonding can occur between adjacent polypeptide chains. The helix is stabilized by hydrogen bonding between amine and carbonyl groups of the same polypeptide chain. The pleated sheet is stabilized by hydrogen bonds between the amine groups of one chain and the carbonyl groups of an adjacent chain. Tertiary Structure The tertiary structure of a polypeptide or protein is the three-dimensional arrangement of the atoms within a single polypeptide chain. For a polypeptide consisting of a single conformational folding pattern (e.g., an alpha helix only), the secondary and tertiary structure may be one and the same. Also, for a protein composed of a single polypeptide molecule, tertiary structure is the highest level of structure that is attained. Tertiary structure is largely maintained by disulfide bonds. Disulfide bonds are formed between the side chains of cysteine by oxidation of two thiol groups (SH) to form a disulfide bond (S-S), also sometimes called a disulfide bridge. Quaternary Structure Quaternary structure is used to describe proteins composed of multiple subunits (multiple polypeptide molecules, each called a monomer). Most proteins with a molecular weight greater than 50,000 consists of two or more noncovalently-linked monomers. The arrangement of the monomers in the three-dimensional protein is the quaternary structure. The most common example used to illustrate quaternary structure is the hemoglobin protein. Hemoglobins quaternary structure is the package of its monomeric subunits. Hemoglobin is composed of four monomers. There are two ÃŽ ±-chains, each with 141 amino acids, and two ÃŽ ²-chains, each with 146 amino acids. Because there are two different subunits, hemoglobin exhibits heteroquaternary structure. If all of the monomers in a protein are identical, there is homoquaternary structure. Hydrophobic interaction is the main stabilizing force for subunits in quaternary structure. When a single monomer folds into a three-dimensional shape to expose its polar side chains to an aqueous environment and to shield its nonpolar side chains, there are still some hydrophobic sections on the exposed surface. Two or more monomers will assemble so that their exposed hydrophobic sections are in contact. More Information Do you want more information on amino acids and proteins? Here are some additional online resources on  amino acids  and  chirality of amino acids. In addition to general chemistry texts, information about protein structure can be found in texts for biochemistry, organic chemistry, general biology, genetics, and molecular biology. The biology texts usually include information about the processes of transcription and translation, through which the genetic code of an organism is used to produce proteins.

The Two Purposes Of Teacher Evaluation - 1347 Words

Summarizing the Handbook The two purposes of teacher evaluation are to ensure teacher quality and promote professional learning. In order to thoroughly address how the instruments and protocols offered in the book support and align with the two purposes of teacher evaluation evidence of practice must be first taken into consideration. The framework uses evidence in order to evaluate teacher performance. According to Danielson (2008), â€Å"the term evidence is intended to convey the conversations about teaching and must be grounded in actual events, in actions or statements in artifacts, or in decisions a teacher has made† (p. 1). Evidence can come from formal and informal observations, and/or the examination of artifacts. Teacher observations serve as an essential purpose since it allows the observer to gain an understanding of the learning environment, rapport and interaction the teacher has established inside the classroom. It also allows the observer to gather evidence regarding student enga gement and learning outcomes. Furthermore, â€Å"observation of classroom practice with the accompanying pre-conference and post-conference, provide the best evidence of Domains 1, 2, and 3 of the framework for teaching: Planning and Preparation, the Classroom Environment, and Instruction† (Danielson, 2008, p. 2). However, evidence of Domain 4: Professional Responsibilities demonstrate skills of maintaining student records, actively communicating with families, and continuousShow MoreRelatedEvaluation Of An Overhaul For Teachers And Administration Alike Essay1367 Words   |  6 PagesTeacher evaluation has long been in need of an overhaul for both teachers and administration alike. Just like the educational system is no longer focused on the industrialized method of teaching (where every kid receives the same instruction the same exact way), teacher evaluation can no longer be focused on one snapshot moment of teaching. In the past teachers have been evaluated on a single moment within their classroom. The evaluation focused on a variety of topics across the state but never hasRead MoreThe Teacher Induction Program At Round Lake Area School District 1161078 Words   |  5 PagesStatement of Purpose for the RLAS Mentor Program Purpose- The purpose of the Teacher Induction Program at Round Lake Area School District 116 is to provide a new teacher in the district the assistance necessary to begin a successful teaching career through a mentoring relationship during their first year of employment in our district. This program will assist new teachers and teachers new to our district in a further understanding of teaching techniques, procedures, requirements, and expectationsRead MoreAssessment And Evaluation Strategies For Nurses Educators Essay859 Words   |  4 PagesAssessment and Evaluation Strategies for Nurse Educators Introduction Kizlik (2014) describes assessment and evaluation as fundamental elements of the knowledge base of professional teachers. Kizlik (2014) also recommends that the implementation of both assessment and evaluation be a principal component of the curricula at colleges and universities. Therefore, understanding the differences between assessment and evaluation is vital in effective teaching for professional teachers and students. AlthoughRead MoreThe Appropriate and Inappropriate Use of Assessments in Instructional Design1368 Words   |  6 Pagesinappropriate practices teachers use in instructional design. Many teachers face ethical conflicts regarding assessment and the design of instructional materials for their students. This paper focuses on defining ethical behavior and examining educators ethical judgments in relation to assessment. According to the study (2008), Educational Leaders Perceptions about Ethical Practices in Student Evaluation, â€Å"little is known about educatorsâ €™ perceptions about the ethics of student evaluation practices.† ThisRead MoreThe Supervision And Evaluation Of Teachers788 Words   |  4 Pagescorrelation between student achievement and teacher quality.† Direct supervision and evaluation of teachers should effectively address teacher quality, and thereby effect student learning and achievement. Bret Range, an associate professor of educational leadership at the University of Wyoming has written two papers and maintains a blog related to teacher supervision. His research indicates, â€Å"the key to teacher development lies within well-planned teacher supervisory activities.† The focus of thisRead MoreEvaluation Project Background Of Physical Education Essay1298 Words   |  6 PagesEvaluation Project Background While the term physical literacy is gaining attention in the US as a goal for physical education (PE), physical literacy (PL) has been used within physical education in other countries such as Europe, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. The internationally accepted definition of PL is â€Å"the motivation, confidence, physical competence, knowledge and understanding to value and take responsibility for engagement in physical activities for life† (Whitehead, 2013). The conceptionRead MoreEvaluation System For Teachers And Student Growth783 Words   |  4 Pagesevaluate teachers. This year, all teachers attended a mandatory PD session on our new evaluation system. One of the biggest difference for this year, is that we will be using student tests scores as part of our evaluation. Another change will be that teachers are now going to be picking two student growth objects to focus on, and two professional development growth plans. This current system is very aligned to what Robe rt Marzo suggested in his article on the two purposes of teacher evaluation. Our newRead MoreData On Student Learning And Development Of Students1318 Words   |  6 Pagesthe purpose of improving student learning and development. (Assessment Essentials: planning, implementing, and improving assessment in higher education by Palomba and Banta 1999) Assessment can be used for different purposes in education. This is reflected in Wiggins and McTighe’s (2005) definition of assessment as â€Å"the act of determining the extent to which the desired results are on the way to being achieved and to what extent they have been achieved†. Even in this simple definition, two differentRead MoreEvaluating Academic Program Essay example683 Words   |  3 Pagesmany academic programs to students, teachers or educational supervisors or others. It’s obvious that evaluation these academic programs is very significant to bring out better outcomes. Moreover, it is a very important part of the development of an educational process in all its aspects. At some point, educators will need to evaluate an educational program to determine its worth and to get a proper outcome. Thus, there are many committees and accreditation of teacher education revealed lately. I findRead MoreLiteracy Action Is An Essential Blueprint For Improving Student Achievement821 Words   |  4 Pagesthat educators and schools need to focus on professional learning opportunities but also need to follow up workshops to keep their teachers up-to-date with current data research. A program evaluation examines a program to determine its worth, make recommendations for refinement and success (Spaulding, 2014). Plans come in many different sizes and shapes, so evaluations need to be the same way. The goal of RTI and LLI is to accelerate these children’s progress to bring them up to grade level. Both

The Recruitment Process of Morgan Stanley Free Essays

HRM Case 4 – Rob Parson The given case describes the general hiring process of Morgan Stanley and how their employees are evaluated. The main purpose of this text is the evaluation of Rob Parson and whether or whether not he is suited for a promotion becoming managing director of a certain branch of the company. The text gives a description about Rob Parson past, academically in his job career prior to Morgan Stanley and how his colleagues describe him. We will write a custom essay sample on The Recruitment Process of Morgan Stanley or any similar topic only for you Order Now In addition to this Paul Nasr is also described as he is the person who has to evaluate Rob and he is also the person who initially hirer Rob at Morgan Stanley. Assessment of Rob Parson’s Performance All in all I would say that Rob Parson is doing a good job as you it is said that his skills of closing deals are very good. He might have problems to work in a team however he has to be told that other don’t agree with the way he approaches his tasks. In addition to that I think that Rob Parson deserves a promotion however he will need to change his team playing approach. It is necessary to be able to work with other efficiently in this fast moving market and he has to be aware of that. Evaluation and development summary (Rob Parson) Strengths| Development Areas| 1. Knows what he is doing| 1. Working in a team| 2. Commits to his work| 2. Leadership skills| 3. Knows how to make a deal| 3. Following the Morgan Stanley Culturc| Performance objectives for the next year| Business Goals: Increase the market share in CMS| Professional Development Goals: Be seen as a Team Player at Morgan Stanley| Career Goals: Eventually be promoted if attitude changes| Nasr’s Performance Appraisal, future goals and Issues that need to be raised If I were in Paul Nasr position to conduct the performance appraisal for Rob Parson I would approach it in a conservative way. First of all I think it would help to praise him for his success at the firm and that in general things are going good. When it comes to evaluating his performance as a team player at Morgan Stanley, I would first of all remind him of Morgan Stanley’s way of doing business and that teamwork is an important fact if you would like to be successful at the company. In addition to that I would then be important to tell Parson about the fact that some of his peers complained about the way he is pursuing business, leaving broken eggs. The goals I would set for Parson would be the advise to play more along the corporate culture of Morgan Stanley and he will most likely receive the desired promotion If you were Rob Parson, how would you conduct yourself in the performance evaluation meeting? What are your goals? How would you try to influence the process? In Rob Parson’s position I would approach the performance evaluation meeting in a confident way. He should listen to what the critics have to say about him and and try to work with that. Denying his mistakes will not help him for his desired promotion and thus he should accept them and try to work out a plan with Paul Nasr how he can develop him in the future. In addition to that he should also be assured of his skills and that tell Paul that in general he will become more of a team player, however that some situation in this sector require quick reactions that do not cohere with Morgan Stanley’s bureaucratic ways of doing things. How to cite The Recruitment Process of Morgan Stanley, Essay examples

Maya Angelou Short Bio (Team Harmony Requirement) Essay Example For Students

Maya Angelou Short Bio (Team Harmony Requirement) Essay Maya Angelou is a poet, historian, author, actress, playwright, civil-rights activist, producer and director. She lectures throughout the US and abroad and is Reynolds professor of American Studies at Wake Forest University in North Carolina. She has published ten best selling books and countless magazine articles. At the request of President Clinton, she wrote and delivered a poem at the 1993 presidential inauguration. Dr. Angelou began her career in drama and dance. She married a South African freedom fighter and lived in Cairo where she was editor of The Arab Observer, the only English-language news weekly in the Middle East. In Ghana, she was feature editor of The African Review and taught at the University of Ghana. In the 1960s, at the request of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. , Ms. Angelou became the northern coordinator for the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. She was appointed by President Gerald Ford to the Bicentennial Commission and by President Jimmy Carter to the National Commission on the Observance of International Womens Year. In the film industry, through her work in script writing and directing, Maya Angelou has been a groundbreaker for black women. In television, she has made hundreds of appearances. Her renowned autobiographical account of her youth, I Know Why the Cage Bird Sings, was a two hour TV special on CBS. She has written and produced several prize winning documentaries, including Afro-Americans in the Arts, a PBS special for which she received the Golden Eagle Award. Dr. Angelou speaks French, Spanish, Italian and West African Fanti.

Color Theory Essays - Color, Photographic Processes,

Color Theory Color photographs begin as black and white negatives. Color film consists of three layers of emulsion, each layer basically the same as in black and white film, but sensitive only to one third of the spectrum (reds, greens or blues). Thus, when colored light exposes this film, the result is a multilayered black and white negative After the negative images are developed, the undeveloped emulsion remaining provides positive images by reversal. The remaining emulsion is exposed (chemically or with light) and the film developed a second time with a different developer. As it converts the light-sensitive silver compounds to metallic silver, the developer becomes oxidized and combines with coupler compounds to produce dyes. The three dyes formed, one in each emulsion layer, are the subtractive primaries yellow, magenta and cyan. All silver is then bleached out and each layer is left with a positive color image. Thus reds in the subject produce a heavy silver deposit in the red-sensitive layer in the negative, but no trace on the other layers. Then after reversal, only yellow and magenta remain which together make red. As shown in the illustration, the cyan is all but gone. After the film is processed and the silver is removed, what remains is called a Dye Cloud and as shown in the enlarged illustration below the clouds interaction creates a red color. SUBTRACTIVE COLOR SYNTHESIS uses paints, dyes, inks, and natural colorants to create color by absorbing some wavelengths of light and reflecting or transmitting others. This subtractive action is the basis of photographic filters, almost all films and color papers, and photomechanical reproduction in color. White light is composed of all visible wavelengths, which can be divided into three primary-color bands, red, green and blue. A colorant that absorbs one wavelength band has the combined color of the other two; it is the complement of the color it subtracts from white light. Thus: Primary Primary Combined Color Colors Color of the Absorbed Unaffected Subtractive Complementary Red Blue & Green Cyan Green Blue & Red Magenta Blue Red & Green Yellow The complementary colors are the control colors of subtractive color synthesis; thus, the dyes in color filters and emulsions, and the inks (process colors) used in photomechanical reproduction are cyan, magenta, and yellow. A single complementary produces its own color. Two complementaries in equal strengths produce a primary color because each absorbs a primary--e.g., magenta and yellow absorb green and blue, respectively, leaving red to be seen. Combinations of unequal subtractive strengths produce intermediate colors from white light. A combination of all three complementaries produces black (full strengths) or gray (lesser equal strengths) because all colors are subtracted. In color filtration this produces neutral density. Primary-color lights can be additively mixed to produce colors, but primary-color dyes, inks, or filters do not permit selective color control by subtractive action because each absorbs the other two primaries equally. The complementary colors permit subtractive control of each of the three primaries individually; like additive synthesis, this corresponds with the three-color theory of vision.(1) Color photographic film and paper use subtractive color synthesis to reproduce the real world either directly with transparency film or with an intermediate negative. Color photographs begin as black and white negatives. Color film consists of three layers of emulsion, each layer basically the same as in black and white film, but sensitive only to one third of the spectrum (reds, greens or blues). Thus, when colored light exposes this film, the result is a multilayered black and white negative. Color photographic film and paper use subtractive color synthesis to reproduce the real world either directly with transparency film or with an intermediate negative. Color photographs begin as black and white negatives. Color film consists of three layers of emulsion, each layer basically the same as in black and white film, but sensitive only to one third of the spectrum (reds, greens or blues). Thus, when colored light exposes this film, the result is a multilayered black and white negative. After the negative images are developed, the undeveloped emulsion remaining provides positive images by reversal. The remaining emulsion is exposed (chemically or with light) and the film developed a second time with a different developer. As it converts the light-sensitive silver compounds to metallic silver, the developer becomes oxidized and combines

The Theresa Andrews Case

The Theresa Andrews Case In September 2000, Jon and Teresa Andrews were busy getting ready to enter into parenthood. The young couple was childhood sweethearts and had been married for four years when they decided to begin building a family. Who would know that a chance meeting with another pregnant woman, while in the baby department of a store, would result in murder, kidnapping, and suicide? Summer of 2000 Michelle Bica, 39, shared the good news about her pregnancy with friends and family. She and her husband Thomas prepared their Ravenna, Ohio home for the arrival of their new baby girl by installing baby monitors, setting up a nursery, and buying baby supplies. The couple was jubilant about the pregnancy, especially after the miscarriage Michelle had suffered the year before.  Michelle donned maternity clothing, showed friends the baby sonogram, attended birthing classes, and other than her due date which kept getting pushed forward, her pregnancy appeared to be progressing normally. A Chance Meeting? During a shopping trip to the baby department at Wal-Mart, the Bicas met Jon and Teresa Andrews, who were also expecting their first child. The couples chatted about the cost of baby supplies and discovered that they lived just four streets away from each other. They also talked about due dates, genders, and other normal baby talk. Days following that meeting Michelle announced that there had been a mistake with her sonogram and that her baby was actually a boy. Teresa Andrews Disappears On Sept. 27, Jon Andrews received a call at work from Teresa at around 9 a.m. She was trying to sell her jeep and a woman had called saying she was interested in buying it.  Jon cautioned her to be careful and throughout the day tried to reach her to see how she was and if she sold the jeep, but his calls went unanswered. When he returned home he discovered both Teresa and the jeep were gone although she had left behind her purse and cell phone. He knew then that something was wrong and feared that his wife was in danger. Four Streets Over On the same day, Thomas Bica also received a call at his job from his wife. It was great news. Michelle, in a series of dramatic events, had given birth to their new baby boy. She explained that her water broke and she was taken to a hospital in an ambulance, had given birth, but was sent home with the newborn because of a tuberculosis scare at the hospital. Family and friends were told the good news and over the next week people came by to see the Bicas new baby which they named Michael Thomas. Friends described Thomas as a classic new dad who was ecstatic about their new baby. Michelle, however, seemed distant and depressed. She talked about the news of the missing woman and said she was not going to display the new baby flag in the yard out of respect for the Andrewses. The Investigation The following week, investigators tried to piece together clues into Teresas disappearance. A break in the case came when they identified the woman through phone records who called Theresa about the car. The woman was Michelle Bica. During the first interview with detectives, Michelle appeared evasive and nervous when she told them about her activities on Sept. 27. When the FBI checked out her story they found that she had never been to the hospital and there was not a tuberculosis scare. Her story appeared to be a lie. On October 2, detectives returned to do a second interview with Michelle, but as they pulled into the driveway, she locked herself in a bedroom, put a gun into her mouth, and shot and killed herself. Thomas was found outside the locked bedroom door in tears. The body of Teresa Andrews was found in a shallow grave covered in gravel inside the Bicas garage. She had been shot in the back and her abdomen had been cut opened and her baby removed. Authorities took the newborn baby from the Bica home to the hospital. After several days of testing,  DNA results proved that the baby belonged to Jon Andrews. The Aftermath Thomas Bica told police he believed everything Michelle had told him about her pregnancy and the birth of their son. He was given 12 hours of polygraph examinations which he passed. This along with the results of the investigation convinced the authorities that Thomas was not involved in the crime. Oscar Gavin Andrews Jon Andrews was left to mourn the loss of his childhood sweetheart, wife, and mother of his child. He found some solace in the fact that the baby, renamed as Teresa had always wanted, Oscar Gavin Andrews, had miraculously survived the brutal attack.

Media and Reality Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Media and Reality - Research Paper Example According to Friedman (2002), we live in a technological phase since persons spend several hours on electronic screens conversing or inquiring on diverse topics. Evidently, television programs; for example, â€Å"All in the Family† can alter people’s perceptions of individuals from other races (Dill, 2009). Exposure to this episode can influence the person to generate an optimistic attitude to other races and compel them to initiate interactive relationships. Such a program can instigate a substantial urge to destroy racial bigotry; thus, becoming a force of societal changes (Dill, 2009). However, this program can differ from the realistic situations existent in the country. Racism can be extensive in numerous areas; however, the program acts on our perception since it shuns the reality. Indeed, reality is our discernment of the truth despite the obvious anomalies in the details that can be existent in the background. Television commercials are created in entertaining f orms to lure the audience. They usually encompass an appealing story displayed repeatedly in attractive designs hoping it will induce the audience to ponder on the commercial message. Perception and Reality Friedman (2002) affirms individuals are currently living in two dissimilar worlds that have contrasting realities. One entails the world that the media channels portray and a world that one experiences by engaging in real processes. There are instances where the conceptualization of these diverse worlds significantly varies; thus, shocking the people since it is differs from the expectations (Dill, 2009). As such, the Media controls how we react to gender roles, sexuality, politics and institutional matters (Friedman, 2002). For example, the American Media relays numerous reports on the security threat of other nations to its citizens. Thus, the media portrays violent content leading to a feeling of paranoia amidst the citizens. Consequently, the sensation of exterior threats and violence propagated by the media was instrumental in propelling the US invasion witnessed in diverse countries; for example, Iraq and Afghanistan. Moreover, the obsession of the media with potential repercus sions of external threats continues to influence airlines, immigration authorities and corporations, which have boosted their security protocols. Interestingly, the repetitive conveyance of the Muslim countries as threats continues to shape the perception of the US populace towards Muslims (Dill, 2009). As such, there were incidences of racial attacks towards American Muslims who fail to engage in the acts of distant relatives. Indeed, this is one of the adverse implications of media on societal perceptions. According to Dill (2009), such influential power of the media is escalating to controversial levels since it is instigating widespread changes in the mannerisms and circumstantial implications on individual lives. Technological advancements are consistently becoming a mechanism of

A Study of Relationship Marketing on Customer Satisfaction Research Paper

A Study of Relationship Marketing on Customer Satisfaction - Research Paper Example Approach The study has been conducted on the basis of secondary resources. The research works of different authors have been analysed for performing present a research work on this topic. The paper compiles many research works already undertaken in this area (references given below). Results Such a study has provided us a detailed explanation on the impact of relationship management in maintaining customer satisfaction. The various strategies that have been adopted by the organizations are found to be highly significant for running the organisation successfully. Outcomes obtained through researches show that the application of the concept of relationship marketing in the organization helps in maintaining a healthy customer relation. The company will be enjoying a better position and be more confident with the fact that old customers have been retained. Satisfaction and Trust are the two main pillars of the organizations. Researchers have always emphasized upon the fact that building up strong customer relationships as well as its sustenance plays a key role in the company’s growth and prosperity. Thus it can be said that that the stress laid on customer satisfaction under relationship management forms an essential ingredient for marketing a product. Conclusion The aim of the firms should be to lure consumers by adopting a particular kind of behaviour or attitude. This will encourage an ongoing reciprocal interaction between the customer and the product, service or business concerned parties. This method of building relation has been highlighted throughout the paper in the process of buying and selling. Discussion Marketing has acquired a new dimension through such a revolutionary concept of relationship marketing. It has given much importance to the fact of maintaining good relation with the customers and providing them products according to their preference. In this process the procedure of firms and its strategies of increasing sales by satisfying customers came under the limelight. Effective strategies would surely assure a better stand to the firm in front of stakeholders. A Study of Relationship Marketing on Customer Satisfaction Introduction Marketing is one of the key function and aggregation of processes in an organization aimed at creating and delivering values to the customers. It creates effective relationships with the customer besides successful communication on the behalf of the organization. This proves beneficial to the firms and stakeholders (Tuli & Bharadwaj, p.184). The paper illustrates how the concept of sharing with customers as a part of marketing strategy maximises customer satisfaction. A successful marketing strategy and appropriate management of relationships ensures that customers are retained. For that it is important to focus on the concept of personalization in marketing that will drive the commitment value to the customer(Ashley, Noble, Donthu and Lemon, 2011, p.754).Commitment is termed as a natural ingredient in businesses for manufacturing a product as well as for a service rendered(Liu, Guo and Lee, 2011, pp.71-72). Firms may take into account consumers’ complains as well as suggestions and work towards them as part of their commitment towards customers. The basic rule for m arketing a product is to provide the customers with the products and services best in the industry. This needs to be followed from the beginning to the end.

Impact of stakeholder management in the construction industry

Impact of stakeholder management in the construction industry INTRODUCTION This section of the report covers literature by several authors. A literature review: gives an overview of what has been said in the area of project stakeholders and project success , who the key writers are, what are the prevailing theories and hypotheses, what questions are being asked and what methods and methodologies are appropriate and useful (Emerald, 2010). This chapter seeks to investigate the impact of stakeholder management and its contributions to project success in the construction industry. Using the literature review mind map in Figure 2 below, this report will explore principles and concepts on the subject matter to satisfy its main objectives. Figure 1- Literature review mind map (Author) This literature review will satisfy the following project objectives: To explore the principles of stakeholder management and project success. To assess the benefits and challenges of stakeholder management. To correlate a relationship between stakeholder management and project success. To propose a framework for measuring the impact of stakeholder management on project success thereby assessing its impact on project success. To make recommendations for improved stakeholder management practices. Overview of the UK Construction industry The construction industry in the past 30 years has continued to evolve and expand (PMI 2008) and although changes within the industry are relatively slow (Kagioglou et al 1998), one cannot overlook what the construction industry has contributed to the UK economy (Bennett 2003 p.7). The UK construction industry is the sixth largest industry in the UK in terms of turnover (Adamson and Pollington 2006) and it accounts for 10% of the UKs GDP and employs 1.5 million people (Corporate Watch 2002). Recent studies such as Walker (2007 p.101) has shown that the: Construction process also has a challenging and vital task in defining and implementing the stakeholders requirements. This study considered this to be paramount. This was further asserted by McElroy and Mills (2007 p.758) clearly explaining the importance of stakeholder management. This report would discuss stakeholder management in the next section. Overview of Project Stakeholder A review of various literature and study on project stakeholder begs an explanation as to the origin of the word stakeholder. The word stakeholder was first recorded in text in 1708 according to (Ramirez 1999) from the word stake. Although the definition of a project stakeholder may remain debatable (Walker 2007 p.100), There is no consensus as to a common and widely used definition (McElroy and Mills 2007 p.760). It may be suggested that each author defines stakeholder(s) to suit the aim of individual academic research at that particular time. Below are some definitions of a project stakeholder from various literatures. Vollans (2006 p.50-15) defines a project stakeholder as a: person or organisation with vested interest (positive or negative) in the ultimate outcome of the project. According to Olanda and Landin (2005 p.321) it is: a group of people who have vested interest in the success of a project and the environment within which the project operates. While project management for development organizations (PM4DV) (2009 p.71) suggested that stakeholders are: people who have an interest in the project, whose satisfaction is the most critical element to define the success of a project. Other definitions include the ApmBok (2006 p.159) which defines project stakeholders as: all those who have an interest or role in the project or are impacted by the project. For the purpose of this report an alternative definition would be suggested, this definition would incorporate various definitions as seen above. Project stakeholders are: Group(s) of people /Organisation who have an interest in and who can also impact a project positively or negatively within the project life cycle and whose satisfactions are the most critical element to define the success of a project. (Olanda and Landin 2005; project management for development organizations 2009; Apm Bok 2006; Vollans 2006) Projects are made of different stakeholders with different interest in the project. This study would look at the different types of stakeholder next. Types of stakeholders When considering stakeholders types, it could be suggested that person or organisation is not self sufficient hence the word Globalization came into being projects consist of various stakeholders. This can be seen in studies undertaken by Aaltonen and Sivonen (2009 p.132), where the author suggested that identifying the various stakeholders in a project involves taking into account their wants and requirement. Project stakeholders as identified by Kloppenborg (2009); Aaltonen and Sivonen (2009) are divided into internal and external stakeholders. This can further be subdivided into primary and secondary stakeholders. Identifying both the primary and secondary stakeholders will help the project manager establish the project requirements and expectations, where the expectation is critical to project success (Kloppenborg 2009 p.362). This expectation is divided into three aspects: relationship, communications and lessons learnt. Aaltonen and Sivonen (2009 p.132) defined internal stakeholders as: those who are actively involved in the project implementation and this category of stakeholders usually support the project. The author also inferred that internal stakeholders are also called primary Stakeholders. Examples of primary stakeholders are the project owner, project sponsor and project manager. It could therefore be assumed that Stakeholder Participation specifically by primary stakeholder will increase the chances of success (Unruh 2005 p.413). While the external stakeholders are; members of the project that may affect or be affected by the project Aaltonen and Sivonen (2009 p.132). These are often called secondary stakeholders. Examples of secondary stakeholders are government agencies, suppliers and special interest groups. These classifications will be illustrated in a Figure 3 which shows the level of importance given to primary stakeholders below: Figure 2-Primary and secondary stakeholders (Author) Notwithstanding, neither primary nor secondary stakeholders can stand on its own given todays project environment. A typical example of a primary stakeholder is the project manager who would not be able to proceed if the legislative requirements are not met, this could be in form of risk management system put in place on the construction site. These requirements are set by the government bodies in charge of monitoring and control, they are also known as the secondary stakeholders. Principles of stakeholder management During its years of development, stakeholder management has documented more success than failures in the area of project management (Aaltonen and Sivonen 2009). Due to the diverse nature of this subject matter, stakeholder principle and theories have been sought in national and international policies (Reed 2008). Examples of such success can be seen in research done by Narayan (2007) on Fiji Sugar Corporation; because sugar is the major source of income of Fiji, the presence of many stakeholders in the cooperation is evident but it can also be argued that the effectiveness of the management of all stakeholders present in the cooperation was key to the organisations success. Atkin and Skitmore (2008 p.549) have suggested that project management in the constructions industry has a complex collection of activities required to deliver a construction project. It is therefore conclusive that stakeholder management within the project lifecycle is critical for the success of any construction project. Thus failure of a project manager to manage the concerns of a construction project stakeholder over the years has resulted in a countless number of construction project failures (Atkin and Skitmore 2008; Bourne and Walker, 2005). It must also be noted that stakeholder in the construction industry have the capability to terminate a construction project (Atkin and Skitmore 2008; Lim et al. 2005). A report to the House of Commons by the Committee of Public Accounts (2004) on the issues of Wembley stadium has shown that inadequate planning in the initiation phase of the project lifecycle has lead to stakeholder conflict. Managing stakeholders from the initiation phase of a construction project or any project is essential. Where there is effective stakeholder management, benefits are realised at the end of the project on time, within budget and quality. Due to suggestions made in the previous section by Walker (2007) and McElroy and Mills (2007) that the term stakeholder is difficult to identify, defining stakeholder management will still pose the same difficulty identified by the above authors. Stakeholder Management can be defined as: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦as the continuing development of relationships with stakeholders for the purpose of achieving a successful project outcome (McElroy and Mills 2007 p.760) It could be suggested that for stakeholder management to be successful, it must be strategic; various literatures have suggested a process called the Stakeholder management process; this approach is applicable to both internal and external stakeholder (OGC 2010),the stakeholder process(McElroy and Mills 2007 p.772) are listed below and represented in the figure below: Identification of project success criteria. Identification of Resources Requirement. Identify Stakeholders and level of interest Conduct stakeholder Analysis Develop Strategy for Each Stakeholder identified. Table! : Stakeholder Process Explanation Identification of project success criteria McElroy and Mills (2007) suggested that sponsors success criteria should be in terms of time, cost and performance. Identify Resource Requirement Resource requirement maybe classified as tangible item which could include materials and finance (Burke 2007) and intangible resource such as support and emotions (McElroy and Mills 2007). For a project to be successful it could be suggested that a project manager need access to all this resources both tangible and intangible. Identify Stakeholders and interest Levels To identify project stakeholders McElroy and Mills (2007) have suggested that brainstorming key stakeholders and recording all stakeholders and there level of interest into a stakeholder register. To Conduct Stakeholder Analysis Stakeholder Attitude varies from one person to another. Some maybe in support and some in opposition of the project . Using a stakeholder commitment map the project team will be able perform a more effective assessment of current attitude of each stakeholder during the lifecycle phases. McElroy and Mills (2007) Develop Strategy for each Stakeholder After a stakeholder analysis has been carried out, the project team can build its strategies from the analysis. Such strategies can be the communication plan; this would include all the methods of communication to be used and frequency of the communication between the project team and project stakeholders. Stakeholder Management and Project Lifecycle The body of knowledge in project management (PMBOK) have suggested that: Because projects are unique and involve a certain degree of risk, companies such as the construction industry will generally subdivide their projects into several project phases to provide better management control Stakeholder management could be linked to project lifecycle, according to McManus (2004). Jawahar and Mclaughlin (2004) suggested that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦at any given stage in the project lifecycle certain stakeholders will be more important than other Turner (2007) suggested the following phases; the definition phase where the initial objectives are defined by various stakeholder; the design phase according to Turner (2007) would be the matching the objectives with resources; the execution phase, would involve implementation of the actual work and monitoring and controlling of the project by key stakeholders which also include the project manager and finally the closeout phase involves the commissioning and hand over to key stakeholder. Belout and Gauvreau (2003) suggested that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the effect of the critical factors on success varies as the project cycle stages change This can be seen in Figure used to link criterias for success and lifecycle by Belout and Gauvreau (2003) this is illustrated in the Figure below and can be linked to project success as seen below: Figure! : A Link Between Criterias for Success and Lifecycle PROJECT SUCCESS The word project success is an indefinite word to say the least; this has lead to a set of definitions and perspectives by different professionals and academic in the field of project management. According to McManus (2004), à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦The most successful projects always involve both direct and indirect stakeholders While Yu et al. (2005) suggests that a Project  is a success if its created product adds value to the client, considering the cost to the client at the point of acceptance Ika (2009 p.6) suggested that project success be defined in terms of concepts such as efficiency and effectiveness, Lock (2007 p.5) argues that project success should be defined using the three objectives listed below: Project Completion within the Budget. The project delivered or handed over to customer on time. Good performance, requiring all components of the project to meet the sponsors requirements. Source: Lock (2007, p.5) The author is invariably suggesting that we use the project management triangle seen below in Figure 4 to determine if a project is successful. Figure 3- Success triangle by Lock 2007 (Author) While Lock (2007) and Ika (2009) have presented various ways in which project stakeholders should be defined in the context of project management, Assudani and Kloppenborg (2010) have preferred to summarise their definition of project success in terms project stakeholders. It was suggested that for a project to be successful, it must meet the customers requirements and manage their relationships though effective communication. Accordingly Pinto (2004) went from the Iron triangle suggested by Lock (2007) in Figure 4 and linked it to the benefits gained by the organisation and the project stakeholder(s) at the completion of the project. In a study carried out by Sofia (2003) titled project success in relation with organizational roles and project managers skills and capabilities, the author identified the following in Table 3: Table 1- Project success definition, Source : Sofia (2003) Definition Of Project Success Percentage It meets the target cost, schedule, quality and functionality 88.5% It meet the customers satisfaction 85.9% It creates organisational improvement with the learning from failures and successes (lessons learned) 44.9% It was performed efficiently and effectively 43.6% It succeeds in executing the desired changes because one cannot expect every project to proceed exactly as planned 37.2 Others 7.7% The above table has indicated that studies carried out by Sofia (2003) are in accordance with Lock (2007) and Ika (2009) definitions. This report would define project success as: The satisfaction of stakeholders needs in teams of time, cost, and quality/performance (Lock 2007; Sofia (2003); Ika 2009; Assudani and Kloppenborg 2010; ApmBok 2009). The satisfaction mentioned in the above definition could be suggested to mean the benefit realised at the handover phase of the project. Since projects are unique endeavours (ApmBok 2009), it is right to suggest that satisfying stakeholders requirements using the criterias set aside by the stakeholder should be what success should be measured against. Critical Success factor (CSFs) for construction projects Achieving success is the goal of any project; the construction industry is not different from other industries in achieving success (Yu et al.200). The Apm Bok (2009, p.2) suggested that to satisfy stakeholders, one must have measurable criteria (OGC 2010) to measure success. Since Construction projects have been identified as having issues such as lack of trust, lack of cooperation and ineffective communication which have lead to adversarial relationship among all project stakeholders (Chan et al.2004), partnering with various stakeholders and identifying their view on CSFs using questionnaires (Jing et al. 2010) is important because it gives the project manager a clear view of each stakeholder expectations. Milosevic and Patanakul (2005) suggested that Critical success factors are correlated to a construct of an aggregate measure of  project success According (PMI 2008; Wang and Huang 2009); à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Project success  criteria shall include the golden triangle and key  project stakeholders satisfaction of the  project The following CSFs have been identified from literature and can be employed in the construction industry (Yu et al. 2004; Lock 2007; Hill et al., 2008), these CSFs are listed below: Clear and agreed upon objective. Project requirement must be carefully thought out. Trusting relationship between all members of the project Support from top management Availability of sufficient funds and other resource Technical competence with the project team. Good communication Benefits and Challenges of Stakeholder Management Stakeholder management has both benefits and challenges to construction organisations which are determined by the role played by each stakeholder organisation during the execution of project (Zutshi and Sohal 2002, p.371). The benefits of effective stakeholder management can be linked to an organisation or a countrys financial success (Zutshi and Sohal 2002; Reed et al 2009). Since the construction industry is copious with a sizeable number of stakeholders across the political, social, cultural and economic sector (Moodley et al.2008), identifying those benefits and challenges faced by the construction industry will be a priority for any project manager. Benefits The benefits of stakeholders in the construction industry are explored below thus: Stakeholder Analysis Vollans (2002 p.50-15) suggested that a key benefit of stakeholder management is the principle of analysing stakeholder which simply put is: a technique used to identify and assess the importance of stakeholders Guarded with knowledge gained from analysing various project stakeholders, it could be inferred that the knowledge will be used to make judgement regarding how each stakeholder could help or hinder the project (McElroy and Mills 2007). This early assessment of stakeholders at the planning stage of the project life cycle would identify and improve quality (Vollans 2002) by increasing the level of support from stakeholders and reducing opposition (ApmBok 2009). By identifying each stakeholder and analysing their various interests it could be suggested that this would reduce conflict by resolving issues at an early stage of the project. This analysis must be reviewed throughout the project life cycle phase (ApmBok 2009). Monitoring and Control McElroy and Mills (2007) identified better monitoring and control as a benefit of effective stakeholder management. It is suggested that management of stakeholders with regards to their ever changing interest using project management tools such as change control process and configuration management in conjunction with stakeholder management theories, should enable the project manager manage changes (Zutshi 2004). In the area of cost management, stakeholder management has been able to reduce ambiguity, duplication and waste of resources as a result of conflicts and legal issues (Zutshi 2004; Atkinson 1999) Project Governance Turner (2007) have suggested that Project are governed on behalf of stakeholders which includes owners and contractors The above author also suggested two paradigms of project governance as it relates to organisations. This paradigm suggests that projects are governed on behalf of all stakeholders, which will include both primary and secondary stakeholders. The author suggested that the responsibility of managing this relationship is that of the project manager and project team. This relationship will be managed using the principles of stakeholder management. Challenges In discussing challenges facing stakeholder management in the construction industry the following were identified: Globalization Carson (2002) defined globalisation as: a multidimensional process whereby national resources become more and more internationally mobile while national economies become increasingly interdependent Moodley et al. (2004) in recent studies identified globalisation as a challenge faced by the construction industry and argues that with the ever changing construction industry, recent issues that exists in stakeholder management such as (Communication and Scope Management ) falls within a global context. Since major construction companies in the world including UK construction companies undertake projects in various parts of the world (Steger 2003) and source for materials globally (Moodley et al. 2004), adopting stakeholder management principles and strategies from one region into a new region or culture may lead to failure due to gaps in culture and communication (Tone et al. 2009 p.27). An example of this can be seen in stakeholder management practices adopted during the construction of the Burj Al Arab in Dubai (reference). Effective Knowledge Transfer Some professionals in project management discipline may refer to this as Lessons Leaned. The Ontario health care information (reference) described knowledge transfer as: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦a process of developing, identifying, and disseminating best practices, and planning, producing, disseminating, and applying existing or new research in stakeholder managementà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Senaratne and Sexton (2008) stressed the importance of sharing knowledge within the area of stakeholder management and also noted the role of knowledge in managing change in the construction industry. Egbu (2003) also went further to identify change as the key cause of knowledge production in construction projects. It could be suggested that though knowledge is been transferred in projects through journals in project management and the construction journals, key issues concerning individual project and stakeholder management issues and how this issues are resolved are still kept as confidential documents within various organisations resulting in a gap in the management of stakeholders within the construction sector. Organisational Policy Kamann (2007) suggested that; Organizations usually adapt or adjust their objectives and strategy in order to minimize strategic drift These objective and strategy may impact the project adversely (Aaltonen 2010), the stakeholder defines the scope of the work (ApmBok 2009), if this scope is adjusted or strategy changed as suggested by Kamann (2007) on a regular basis, the ApmBok (2009) has suggested that it would lead to what is known as a Scope Creep. The construction industry is known to be complex and full of different stakeholder with different level of power, the policy of organisation can either help to manage stakeholders more effectively or it may result in difference of option and invariably conflict. 2.7 Relationship between Stakeholder Management and Project Success A survey involving 109 professionals on how best to define project success, shows that 88.5% of respondents agreed that project success should be judged on the basis of cost, schedule, quality, functionality (Sofia 2003), the link between stakeholder management process and success cannot be overemphasised (Bones 2007). McElroy and Mills (2007) illustrated the various stakeholder management processes to project success as seen in the figure!!! below : Project Stakeholder Success Criteria Resources Requirement Stakeholder Identification Stakeholder Analysis Stakeholder Strategy Project Success (Author) Figure!! : The Relationship between Stakeholder Management Project Success While (Wit 1988) suggested that: When measuring project success, one must consider the objectives of all stakeholders throughout the project life cycle and at all levels in the management hierarchy The above author also suggested that: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦it is unlikely that a project can be a complete success for all stakeholders during the entire life of the projectà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ The above statement is reinforced by Aaltonen et al. (2008) when the author proposed critical success factors for stakeholder management in the construction industry. Although the depth of literature linking stakeholder management to project success in the construction industry is minimal, but a general literature into the link between stakeholder management and project success (McElroy and Mills 2007), the (ApmBok 2009; OGC 2010) suggested that to satisfy stakeholders, one must have measurable criteria to measure success.

Basic Syntactic Notions

S Y N T A X LECTURE 6 BASIC SYNTACTIC NOTIONS 1. Some approaches to the study of syntactic units. The central role of syntax within theoretical linguistics became clear only in the 20th century, which some scholars call the â€Å"century of syntactic theory† as far as linguistics is concerned. Nowadays theoretical approaches to the discipline of syntax are numerous and extremely diverse. One school of thought treats syntax as a branch of biology, since it conceives of syntax as the study of linguistic knowledge as embodied in the human mind.Other linguists regard syntax to be the study of an abstract formal system. Yet others consider syntax to be a taxonomical device to reach broad generalizations across languages. One more school of thought approaches syntactic phenomena from the philosophical point of view proceeding from the idea that reality consists of things, their qualities and relationships. Hence, the subdivision of words by the parts of speech and the treatment of s yntactic problems as philisophic processes. The hypothesis of generative grammar is that language is a structure of the human mind.The goal of generative grammar is to make a complete model of this inner language (known as i-language). This model could be used to describe all human language and to predict the grammaticality of any given utterance (that is, to predict whether the utterance would sound correct to native speakers of the language). This approach to language was pioneered by Noam Comsky. Most generative theories (although not all of them) assume that syntax is based upon the constituent structure of sentences. Generative grammars are among the theories that focus primarily on the form of a sentence, rather than its communicative function.Among the many generative theories of linguistics, the Chomskyan theories are: Transformational Grammar (TG) (Original theory of generative syntax laid out by Chomsky in Syntactic Structures in 1957 ; Government and binding theory (GB) ( revised theory in the tradition of TG developed mainly by Chomsky in the 1970s and 1980s); Minimalist program (MP) (a reworking of the theory out of the GB framework published by Chomsky in 1995) Categorial grammar is an approach that attributes the syntactic structure not to rules of grammar, but to the properties of the syntactic categories themselves.For example, rather than asserting that sentences are constructed by a rule that combines a noun phrase (NP) and a verb phrase (VP) (e. g. the phrase structure rule S > NP VP), in categorial grammar, such principles are embedded in the category of the head word itself. So the syntactic category for an intransitive verb is a complex formula representing the fact that the verb acts as a functor which requires an NP as an input and produces a sentence level structure as an output. This complex category is regarded as † a category that searches to the left for a NP (the element on the left) and outputs a sentence (the element on th e right)†.The category of transitive verb is defined as an element that requires two NPs (its subject and its direct object) to form a sentence. Dependency grammar regards structure as determined by the relations (such as grammatical relations) between a word (a head) and its dependents, rather than being based in constituent structure. For example, syntactic structure is described in terms of whether a particular noun is the subject or agent of the verb, rather than describing the relations in terms of phrases. Stochastic/probabilistic grammars/network theories These are theoretical approaches to syntax based upon probability theory.They are known as stochastic grammars. One common implementation of such an approach makes use of a neural network or connectionism. Some theories based within this approach are: Optimality theory and Stochastic context-free grammar. Functionalist grammars are functionalist theories, which (though focused upon form) are driven by explanation based upon the function of a sentence (i. e. its communicative function). Some typical functionalist theories include: Funtionalist grammar; Prague Linguistic Circle; Systemic functional grammar; Cognitive grammar; Construction grammar; Role and reference grammar; Emergent grammar Constructional Syntax.Constructional analysis of syntactic units was initiated by Prof. G. Pocheptsov (1971). The analysis deals with the constructional significance/insignificance of a part of the sentence for the whole syntactic unit. The theory is based on the obligatory or optional environment of syntactic elements. For example, the element him in the sentence / saw him there yesterday is constructionally significant because it is impossible to omit it. At the same time the elements there and yesterday are constructionally insignificant – they can be omitted without destroying the whole structure.Communicative Syntax. It is primarily concerned with the analysis of utterances from the point of their c ommunicative value and informative structure. It deals with the actual division of the utterance – the theme and rheme analysis. Both the theme and the rheme constitute the informative structure of utterances. Pragmatic approach to the study of syntactic units can briefly be described as the study of the way language is used in particular contexts to achieve particular goals. Speech Act Theory was first introduced by John Austin.The notion of a speech act presupposes that an utterance can be said with different intentions or purposes and therefore can influence the speaker and situation in different ways: I just state the fact; Textlinguistics studies the text as a syntactic unit, its main features and peculiarities, different ways of its analysis. Discourse analysis focuses on the study of language use with reference to the social and psychological factors that influence communication. 2. Some concrete methods of syntactic analysis.The most commonly applied concrete methods of syntactic analysis seem to be the IC and transformational procedures. The method of IC is based on the idea that sentences have a hierarchic structure consisting of a number of layers. It is assumed that parts of a sentence are combined with each other according to strict rules. If we want to know how a sentence is built we must separate its units or constituents. Hence the notion of immediate constituents /IC/. Immediate constituents are those parts of a sentence that we arrive at after dividing it into two (the first step).Those parts or IC may, in their turn, be divided into further parts until the actual place of each word in the structure of the sentence as a whole has been established. (e. g. The old man saw a black dog there. S – sentence P – phrase N- noun V – verb t – article p – preposition A – adjective D – adverb) The method of IC is very helpful in syntactical analysis. But it has certain limitations. Sentences in whic h the relations between words are considerably different despite identical surface structures get in the IC model quite similar interpretations. Compare the sentences: John is eager to please and John is easy to please. In the former the relations between John and eager are of a subjective character, while in the latter John and easy stand in an objective relation to each other. By applying the method of IC we cannot establish formally the existing difference. It is because the structures of these sentences are analyzed separately from the structures of other sentences. The tansformational method is aimed at overcoming the demerits of the method of IC.The Transformational grammar was first suggested by American scholar Zelling Harris as a method of analyzing sentences and was later elaborated by another American scholar Noam Chomsky as a synthetic method of ‘generating’ (constructing) sentenceswhich is why the theory is also called â€Å"generative grammar†. The fundamental ideas underlying this method are as follows. Every language has a very small number of sentence patterns called kernel or basic sentences. All the variety of sentences which can exist in that language are derived or generated from these kernel sentences by derivation rules.Grammarians have made attempts at setting up a list of patterns that could be regarded as kernel sentences. It is interesting to point out that the number of these is essentially different in various books. Transformational grammar makes a fundamental distinction between two types of sentences: kernel sentences and transforms. The latter are derived from the former. Transformational grammar traces the derivational history of a sentence by establishing what is called its â€Å"depth structure†. It thus shows why sentences having similar surface structures convey different structural meanings.The differences in meaning can be formally explained applying the transformational method. Z. Harris set u p the following list of kernel sentences: NV(John came); NVpN (John looked at Mary); NVN(John saw Mary); N is N (John is a teacher); N is p N (/John is in bed); N is D (John is here); N is A (John is angry) The above sentence â€Å"The old man saw a dog there† can be interpreted as the transform of the following three kernel sentences:The man saw a dog there. The man was old. The dog was black. (The man who was old saw a dog that was black. ( The old man saw a black dog there.The ambiguity of the sentence â€Å"Flying planes can be dangerous†, is easily explained by the following transformational procedure: To fly planes is dangerous. He can fly planes. ( Flying planes can be dangerous. Planes can be dangerous. Planes fly. ( Flying planes can be dangerous. Only by transformation can we explain why phrases of the N`sN type denote different relations as in John’s arrival and John’s trial, the former being a transform of the kernel sentence John arrives and the latter having a different derivational history: X triesJohn ( John is tried ( John’s trial.S. Porter reduces the number of kernel sentences to three: â€Å"All simple sentences belong to one of three types: A) The sun warms the earth; B) The sun is a star; C) The sun is bright; As an argument S. Porter adds: â€Å"Word order is changeless in A) and B), but not in C). Even in sober prose a man may say â€Å"Bright is the sun†. The sentences derived fromsuch kernel sentences are words or combination words added to the kernel ones in accordance with their combinability so as to make the communication as complete as the speaker wishes.Thus, the kernel sentence â€Å"Boys play† can be quite independent. But this sentence can be extended by realizing the combinability of the noun â€Å"boys† and the verb â€Å"play† into â€Å"The three noisy boys play boisterous upstairs†. We can develop the sentence into a still more extended one. But one should bear in mind that the rules of combinability have to be observed for the sentence to be valid. It should also be stressed that there are rules of grammatical and lexical combinability as well as stylistic ones.The combination of words will be ungrammatical if we put together â€Å"boys plays†, instead of â€Å"boys play† or â€Å"the fish shouted† instead of â€Å"the boy shouted†. 3 The Subject Matter of Syntax Words by themselves do not, as a rule, make up complete units of speech, in order to become such units, they must get combined with one another in the framework of linguistic items of a higher rank. These are the sentence and the phrase. As a whole, they make up the syntactical structure of a language.From the point of view of Structural Grammar syntax is the part of grammar that studies the laws in accordance with which words become phrases, and sentences. Hence, syntax is the part of grammar that investigates the syntactical structure of a language. It treats of both phrases and sentences which, though belonging to different levels of language structure, are closely connected with each other. The traditional definition of syntax was extended by Prof. L. S. Barkhudarov who states that syntax has also to investigate phenomena lying on a still higher level, namely the level on which sentences combine into groups of sentences.Considering the fact that syntax studies the way words and phrases are combined into phrases, sentences and texts some scholars define syntax as the science which studies the types of formal and semantic relations within word combinations, sentences, supra-phrasal unities and texts. The syntactic language level can be described with the help of special linguistic terms and notions: syntactic unit, syntactic form, syntactic meaning, syntactic function, syntactic position, and syntactic relations. Syntactic unit is always a combination that has at least two constituents.The basic syntactic units are a word-group, a clause, a sentence, and a text. Their main features are: they are hierarchical units (the units of a lower level serve the building material for the units of a higher level); as all language units the syntactic units are of two-fold nature (the content side – the syntactic meaning of a syntactic unit- being opposed to the expression side -the syntactic form of a syntactic unit); they are of communicative and non-communicative nature (word-groups and clauses are of non-communicative nature while sentences and texts are of communicative nature.Syntactic meaning is the way in which separate word meanings are combined to produce meaningful word-groups and sentences. Syntactic form may be described as the distributional formula of the unit (pattern). John hits the ball – N1 + V + N2. Syntactic function is the function of a unit on the basis of which it is included to a larger unit: in the word-group a smart student the word ‘smart’ is in subordi nate attributive relations to the head element. In traditional terms it is used to denote syntactic function of a unit within the sentence (subject, predicate, etc. ).Syntactic position is the position of an element. The order of constituents in syntactic units is of principal importance in analytical languages. The syntactic position of an element may determine its relationship with the other elements of the same unit: his broad back, a back district, to go back, to back sm. Syntactic relations are syntagmatic relations observed between syntactic units. They can be of three types -coordination, subordination and predication. 4 The Phrase Level and the Sentence Level Modern linguistics distinguishes between the phrase level and the sentence level.There exist many definitions of phrases, the difference between them being that one group of scholars hold that phrases consist of only notional words while their opponents think that the constituents of a phrase can be function words (prep ositions, conjunctions, etc. ). Most definitions mention some negative feature characteristic of phrases. Prof. B. A. Ilyish, for instance, terms as phrase â€Å"every combination of two or more words which is a grammatical unit but is not an analytical form of some word. † Prof. L.S. Barkhudarov, on the other hand, defines a phrase as â€Å"a group of syntactically connected notional words being part of a sentence but not being the sentence itself. † We have already mentioned how difficult it is to draw a rigid demarcation line between phrases and analytical forms. As to the borderline between phrases and sentences, it is much easier to establish. The most important feature of a sentence as distinct from a phrase is its intonation. The structure of a phrase is of a very wide and abstract character.While singling out particular types of phrases we do not take into account the lexical meanings of the words or their morphological features. (So, for example, all the group s of words, that follow, can be classed as phrases of the V+N type: writes a letter, has seen the friend, has been giving lessons, having completed the work, etc. ) Since phrases are only parts of sentences, we must assume that there exists a higher level with its own peculiar structure. It is called the sentence level.Irrespective of its linear character (a succession in time or space of morphemes, words, phrases), the sentence has a hierarchic structure. That means that the parts of a sentence are not independent, they can exist as such only in their mutual interrelation. The interdependence of the parts of a sentence is not necessarily reflected in their linear succession. 5. Types of Syntactical Relations; Means of Expression The relations between words within phrases and sentences are not uniform.It is one of the most important tasks of syntax to single out and to define the types of syntactical relations. The universally recognized types of syntactic relations are: subordinati on, coordination and predication. Subordination is the type of syntactical relation under which the function of one part of the phrase coincides with the function of the phrase as a whole. The leading part is called the head of the phrase while the part having a function different from that of the head is called the adjunct of the phrase.Apart from the purely semantic criterion it is quite possible to establish which word is the head by applying the formal procedure of substitution (e. g. â€Å" A young man entered the room†. In this sentence the whole group a young man performs the function of the subject. We may replace the group by the word man: â€Å"A man entered the room†. Hence, the word man is the head of the phrase and young – the adjunct. ) While performing the substitution procedure one should not change the syntactical relations within the sentence as a whole(e. g. He is a young man.He is a man. He is young /wrong/). Coordination is the type of synta ctical relation under which he syntactical function of the whole group coincides with that of its parts. Coordination can also be established by applying the substitution test (Thus, in the sentence â€Å"Boys and girls studied at that school†, the group boys and girls performs the function of the subject. The same function can be performed by either of the words making up the group: â€Å"Boys and girls studied at that school†. â€Å"Boys studied at that school†, â€Å"Girls studied at that school†).Coordinative relations are found in phrases with coordinative conjunctions /but, neither†¦nor/ and also in groups like the poet Byron, my brother the teacher(e. g. The poet Byron lived in Greece. – The poet lived in Greece. – Byron lived in Greece; My brother the teacher got married last year. – My brother got married last year. – The teacher got married last year). Predication is the type of syntactical relation under which t he syntactical function of the group as a whole is different from the functions of each of its components /IC/.The most typical predicative relation is that between the subject and the predicate. This is most distinctly seen in complex sentences such as: â€Å"I hate†¦talking loudly†; â€Å"I knew he had come† None of the IC of the subordinate clauses can be replaced by the clause as a whole. It is impossible to say â€Å"I knew he† or â€Å"I knew had come†. The types of syntactic bonds just described are generally recognized, though not all scholars use the terms given above to designate them.However, these types of syntactic bonds can fail to explain the relation between, for instance, the main predication and the inserted elements in the sentences (â€Å"The boy, as it were, left the house†. â€Å" Interestingly and fortunately for him nobody saw him†). That is why some grammarians consider it also necessary to single out other type s of syntactic relation to cover the cases in question. The number and types of syntactic bonds added to the above given ones varies from author to author and we are not going to dwell on them here.Instead, we shall confine ourselves to presenting the system of syntactic bonds worked out by Prof. Smirnitskiy which will serve as an example. According to him there are four types of syntactic relations in English: 1) the attributive bond characterized by A. I. Smirnitskiy as the closest kind of syntactic relations (we deal with the attributive bond in attributive word combinations or between the attributive subordinate clause and its head in the main clause); 2) the completive bond connecting the predicate and all kinds of objects, objective subordinate clauses.Adverbial subordinate clauses are also said to be connected with the main clause with the help of this kind of bond; 3) the copulative bond connecting homogeneous parts of a sentence, or independent clauses in a compound sentenc e. Parenthesis(or insertions) of all kinds are also regarded as syntactic phenomena introduced into the sentence with the help of this kind of syntactic bond; 4) the predicative bond, which is described as the loosest of all syntactic bonds, establishes the relations between the subject and the predicate.Every language has its peculiar grammatical means that signal different syntactical relations. Like morphemes indicating various forms of words, these may be called syntactical forms for they express syntactical relations. The relations between words in a phrase or a sentence are diverse and multiple. In syntactical analyses we normally avoid mentioning relations which can be ascribed to the lexical meanings of the words (e. g. In the phrases his singing and his hat the semantic relations between the words are different (doer- process, possession) but syntactically we have one and the same relation (subordination).Modern English makes use of the following syntactical means of expres sing syntagmatic relations: Word-order. It is with the help of word-order that we make out the syntactical relations between the words in the following groups: a young man; to read a book; stone wall; Peter sees Mary; etc. Word order may indicate not only that the words stand in some kind of relation to one another but also what kind of relation it is. The forms of the words. This linguistic device has more than often been underestimated by scholars writing on the grammar of English.In the opinion of Prof. A. I. Smirnitskiy, it is just due to their scarcity that the forms of the words acquire an important role in the structure of the sentence or phrase. The importance of the morphological forms can be clearly seen if we compare the following two groups of which only the former is a sentence: He likes them – Him like they. Function words. By these we mean prepositions and conjunctions which show different relations between words (e. g. the poet Byron – the poet after By ron; a poor man – poor and proud). Intonation.Intonation may perform different functions: it helps to distinguish between a phrase and a sentence, it may also indicate different relations between words. LECTURE 7 THE PHRASE 1. Syntactical Classification of Phrases In accordance with the character of syntactic relations existing between the parts of a phrase, these are divided into three large classes: subordinative phrases, coordinative phrases, predicative phrases. This division is based on the definition under which a phrase is understood as a combination of two. or more notional words standing in some syntactical relation to one another' and being . art of a sentence. 2. Formal Relations within a Phrase. The inner relations between the parts of a phrase are expressed formally in some way or other. No uniform classification of these formal devices has not been established so far. Still, the following types of formal syntactical means have been outlined so far: Agreement by which grammarians understand the phenomenon of two or more words having similar morphological forms due to their being connected syntactically. As a rule, the subordinate element adapts its form to that of the word it is subordinated to.Agreement is found in noun phrases with demonstrative pronouns: (this book – these books that house – those houses. ) As to the agreement between the subject and the predicate, it is of a less formal character (e. g. The United States is a country situated in North America. Our group are fond of sports. ) In this respect English is less formal than, say, Russian. In English the subject and the predicate agree with each other semantically rather than formally. This type of connection is called correspondence. Government by which grammarians understand he phenomenon of one of the words in a phrase having some grammatical form conditioned by the word it is subordinate to Government is very common in Russian where even prepositions can requ ire that the nouns following them should stand in a certain case form. As a syntactical device government is rather rare in Modern English. We find it in combinations of the V+In type in which the verb requires that the personal pronoun should have the form of the objective case. The same can be said of p + In and p + whom (see him, invite us, to me, about whom, etc). Adjoining and enclosure.The absence of both agreement and government, termed adjoining, is the most characteristic feature of the syntactical structure of Modern English. Adverbs, for example, are said to be adjoined to verbs and adjectives. Strictly speaking it is not only the actual position of the adjective that helps the hearer or reader to understand what word is modified by the adverb, but in many cases some semantic features have also to be taken into account, for the adverb may be considerably far from the word it is connected with. Modern English makes extensive use of another means of expressing syntactical r elations.It is called en enclosure. A very illustrative example of enclosure is found in word groups like a. fine day, where the article is separated from the noun permitting other words to become syntactically connected with the noun. In this way any word, word group and even whole sentences may become adjuncts of the noun (e. g. The above statement; a big-circulation newspaper; a take-it-or-leave-it tone). 3. 0. Jespersen ‘s Theory of Ranks A very interesting syntactical theory, known as the theory of three ranks. was elaborated by O. Jespersen.According to this theory, there is a certain analogy between the distribution of words into parts of speech and their interrelations in actual speech. Analysing the word group extremely hot weather 0. Jespersen points out that the chief word is defined by another word which in its turn may be defined by a third word, etc. â€Å"We are thus†, he writes, â€Å"led to establish different â€Å"ranks† of words according to their mutual relations as defined defining. † In his example weather is called_the primary, hot – the secondary, extremely – the tertiary In this way one can establish the rank of a word in respect of the other words it is connected with. . Subordinative phrases: noun phrases; verb phrases; adjective phrases; adverb phrases; pronoun phrases. .Subordinative phrases are distinctly different from co-ordinative and predicative phrases. In these phrases we always find parts winch are unequal as regards their syntactical status. The word whose function coincides with the function of the whole_phrase is called the head, and the dependent or subordinate word is called the adjunct. Unlike coordinative phrases subordinative phrases are always binary in structure.That means that irrespective of the actual number of words making up a subordinative phrase it always falls into two immediate constituents. So, for example, the phrase continued to refuse to meet demands for highe r wages, at the initial stage of division into I? falls into two parts: continued and to refuse to meet demands for higher wages. What was the adjunct during the first division, in its turn, falls into the next I?: to refuse and to meet demands for higher wages; the latter also consists of two parts: to meet and demands for higher wages, and so on.The principles of classification of subordinative phrases may be various. They may be classified depending on the part of speech the head of the phrase belongs to. Under this classification the following types of phrases are distinguished: noun phrases, verb phrases, adjective phrases, adverb phrases, pronoun phrases. The second classification takes into account whether the I? of the phrase consist of one or more than one. notional words. If each I? of the phrase has only one notional_word, the phrase is called simple.If at least one of the I? has_two or more notional_words, the phrase is called complex. We can also distinguish, in this co nnection, between complex phrases with an expanded head and complex phrases with an expanded adjunct , and, finally, there may be phrases in which both the head and the adjunct are expanded. (e. g. The reception of the delegation by the President (a complex phrase with an expanded head) Saw the father of the youth (a complex phrase with an expanded adjunct); The reception of the delegation by the President of the state (a complex phrase in which both the head and the adjunct are expanded).Subordinative phrases may additionally be divided into continuous and discontinuous. This division takes into account the fact whether the I? of the phrase are found in succession or whether they are separated by some word which does not belong to this phrase. (e. g. Slowly, Old Jolyon got up out of the chair – a discontinuous phrase). a. Noun Phrases Noun_phrases are subordinatiye phrases in which the,head is a noun. As regards the mutual positions of the head and its adjunct linguists dist inguish noun phrases with preposed adjuncts and noun phrases with postposed adjuncts.In noun phrases with preposed adjuncts the latter can be expressed by the following classes of words: adjectives, pronouns, numerals, verbs in the form of participle I or participle II, nouns having the ‘s morpheme or without it. To use symbols, these phrases have the following structures: AN (white snow; thick books); laN (this room; his friend); QN (three windows; the second lesson); V-ingN (shouting boys; melting ice); V-enN (written works; corrected mistakes); N'sN (Mary's book; a week's delay); NN (window glass; university team).In noun phrases with postposed adjuncts the following units may be the adjuncts: prepositional groups; adjectives and adjective phrases; verbs in the form of participles and verb phrases in which participles are the heads; verbs in the form of the infinitive and verb phrases in which the infinitive is the head; infinitival and gerundial predicative phrases; noun p hrases; conjunctional groups; adverbs; numerals;subordinate clauses.The patterns noun phrases with postposed adjuncts are: NpN (the title of the book); NpNP (the title of the new book); NpIn (the saving of him); NpV-ing (my reason for coming); NpV-ingP (my reason for coming here). In principle any preposition can be part of a postposed adjunct. Special investigations have shown, however, that the preposition of covers 70% of all occurrences. Postposed adjuncts with adjectives are relatively rare, in this position the occurrence of adjective phrases is much more common: NA (the people present); NAP (a country rich in coal).It should be stressed here that only a limited number of adjectives can be used as postposed adjuncts. They are: the adjective present; adjectives with the suffixes -ible, -able, some adjectives with the prefix a- (afraid, alive). Postposed adjuncts with verbs in various forms are represented by the following types: NV-en (the person addressed); NV-ing (the childre n shouting); NV-enP (the work done by him); NV-ingP (the children shouting in the yard); NtoV (the work to do); NtoVD (the work to do quickly).Postposed adjuncts consisting of predicative phrases are of two kinds: they may have as a head either the infinitive or the ing-form. As a rule, they are introduced by the preposition for (the so-called for-phrases). Here are some of the most frequent patterns: NforNtoV (a book for Tom to read); NforN'sV-ing or NforNV-ing (the reason for Tom's coming; the reason for Tom coming). Each part of the adjunct may get considerably expanded (the reason for poor Tom's coming late;a poem for this little boy to learn by heart).Postposed adjuncts in which nouns are the heads or introduced by the conjunction as are not very frequent in Modern English. They are: NNP (a child the same age); NasN (his life as an artist); NasNP (his life as an opera singer). Postposed adjuncts with adverbs are rarely used: ND (Jim’s speech yesterday). Postposed adjunct s with numerals are confined in English only to quantitative numerals (page three, room ten). b. Verb PhrasesVerb phrases take a central position among all types of phrases in Modern English. They display a great variety of structure and are capable of combining with one another.Therefore they make up syntactical constructions of considerable depth, and complexity. Prof. L. S. Barkhudarov suggested that verb phrases should be classified according to the lexico-grammatical nature of the verb being the head of the phrase. As is known, all English verbs fall into two large classes: transitive and intransitive verbs. It is also known that many verbs can be used in either meaning but this is quite irrelevant for syntax because in any given sentence one and the same verb is either transitive or intransitive.Under the classification suggested by Prof. L. S. Barkhudarov English verb phrases fall into the following main classes: phrases the head of which is either a transitive or an intransi tive verb; phrases the head of which necessarily belongs to a definite subclass of verbs (transitive or intransitive). The adjuncts in verb phrases, accordingly, fall into two types: adjuncts capable of combining with verbs of either class called extensions; adjuncts capable of combining with verbs of only a definite class (transitive or intransitive) called complements.The adjuncts of a transitive verb are called object complements, those of an intransitive verb qualifying complements. The following adjuncts can be found in verb phrases with extensions: adverbs and adverb phrases; adjectives and adjective phrases; prepositional groups; noun phrases without prepositions; pronouns; verbs in the form of the infinitive; participle I and participle II;conjunctional groups; predicative phrases;subordinate clauses: VD (runs quickly); VDP (runs very quickly); VA (stood, angry); VAP (stood, red with anger); VpN (returns to the country);VNP arrived last week); VIa (lives there); VIself. wash ing himself); VtoT (came to help); VtoVP (came to help me); VV-ing (came laughing); VV-en (came, frightened); VbN (acting as judge); VbA (speaking whenever possible); Vb toV (rising so as to see); VforNtoV (stood for John to pass); VpN'sV-ing (left without John's, noticing). (For verb phrases with complements see: ?. ?. . , p? 89 -110) ?.Adjective Phrases Adjective phrases have a comparatively low frequency of occurrence, if the head of the phrase is an adjective in the positive degree, the adjunct may be: an adverb; a prepositional group; a noun; a noun phrase; a verb in the form of the gerund or the infinitive; a predicative phrase and a subordinate clause: DA (incredibly beautiful); ApNP (good for young children); AN (worth the trouble); AV-ingP (busy doing sums); AtoV (ready to go); AforNtoV (easy for John to read).Things are somewhat different with adjectives in the comparative and superlative degrees. Adjectives in the comparative degree usually combine with adjuncts intr oduced by the conjunction than (Tom is older than George). They also combine with adverbs and adverbial pronouns, such as far, still, much (far greater, much better, still greater). Adjectives in the superlative degree may have a proposed adjunct like by far or a postposed adjunct – a prepositional group introduced by the prepositions of and in. d.Adverb Phrases In adverb phrases the adjuncts may stand both in preposition and in postposition. Proposed adjuncts are adverbs and adverbial pronouns (except enough), and with the adverbs before, later, earlier, ago nouns or noun phrases. Postposed adjuncts are the pro-adverb enough, prepositional groups (p+N,etc. ), nouns and noun phrases: DD (rather well); IdD (so nicely); ND (years later); NPD (six days ago); D+enough (well enough); DpN (high in the air). e. Pronoun PhrasesOnly indefinite, negative and demonstrative pronouns can be heads of pronoun phrases.They take the following adjuncts: prepositional groups (p+N; p+In, p+NP); adjectives or adjective phrases; verbs in the form of the infinitive or verb phrases with the infinitive as the head;infinitival predicative phrases and subordinate clauses. The adjunct is always placed in postposition: In pN (some of the workers); In pIn (some of us); InA (something strange); IntoV (nothing to do); In forNtoV (Nobody for Tom to see). 5. Coordinative phrases. Co-ordinate phrases are characterized by the following features: all its members have a similar function in the sentence; their structure is not binary.As to the morphological peculiarities of the constituents of a coordinate phrase, it should be stressed here that this point is of no relevance for syntax. (So, for example, in the sentence – Celia was pretty and a good companion – pretty and a good companion are the constituents of one and the same coordinate phrase irrespective of their being essentially different as regards their morphological nature: pretty is an adjective, good companion is a noun phrase. ) Coordinate phrases fall into two groups: 1)Syndetic coordinate phrases.The syntactical connection between the I? is expressed with the help of conjunctions. If the conjunction is continuous, the coordinate phrase is said to be simple. If the conjunction is discontinuous, the phrase is said to be correlative (E. g. It was the sound of a gramophone, harsh and loud, He has both luck and talent. ) 2)Asyndetic coordinate phrases. The syntactical connection between the parts of the phrase is expressed only with the help of intonation. (E. g. He was hot, dusty, tired out. The good lady her mother now interposed. ) 6.Predicative phrases Predicative phrases fall into three groups: infinitival predicative phrases (for John to come); gerundial predicative phrases (John's coming); absolute predicative phrases (all things considered). Predicative phrases have a binary structure, they are made up of only two I?. They have much in common with sentences, but the I? of a predicative p hrase should not be termed subject and predicate. It should be noted here that the subjectival member of a predicative phrase and the subject of a sentence always refer to different persons or things. (E. g.He stood up for me to sit down. He is proud of his friend having won a prize. The lesson being over, we went home. ) Infinitival predicative phrasesThe subjectival member of an infinitival predicative phrase is a noun. a noun phrase or a pronoun, the latter in the form of the objective case. The predicatival member of an infinitival predicative phrase is any form of the infinitive with or without words subordinate to it. The phrase is preceded by the preposition for: forN/P/toV/P/ (for John to go there); forI toV/P/ (for something to happen); forI toV/?/ (for him to come late).Gerundial predicative phrasesThe subjectival member of a gerundial predicative phrase is a noun or a noun phrase with or without the morpheme ‘s; a possessive pronoun in the conjoint form or a persona l pronoun in the objective case form and other pronouns. The predicatival member of a gerundial predicative phrase is any form of the gerund with or without words subordinate to it: NP'sV-ingP (young John's coming late); NPV-ing P: (young John coming late); I'sV-ingP (his coming late); ImV-ing P (him coming late).Absolute predicative phrasesThe subjectival member of an absolute predicative phrase is a noun or a noun phrase, a personal pronoun in the nominative case or another type of pro-noun. The predicatival member of an absolute predicative phrase is a verb in the form of the participle or the infinitive, or a verb phrase with these forms as a head, or non-verbal parts of speech: adjectives, adverbs, prepositional groups:NPV-ingP (his voice trembling with excitement); InV-ingP (it rising slowly); NPV-enP ( his thirst gone);NPtoV? (the expenses to be paid); In toVP (each to be defined); NPAP (his face very pale); NPD (breakfast over); NPpNP (hat in hand); NPpIm (her back to him); NPNP (his shot a failure). Instances are not few when absolute predicative phrases are introduced by the prepositions with or without. (He looked at Mr. Micawber attentively, with his whole face breathing short and quick in every feature. I left the room without anybody noticing it)